Chapter: 1
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Q1. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France.
Answer: Following are some of the causes which had a cumulative effect to result in revolution in France:
(a) The war with Britain for an independent America: This war led to mounting debt on the French monarchy. This necessitated imposition of new taxes on the public.
(b) Privilege based on birth: People got privileges and position based on their lineage and not on their merit. This led to resentment among common people.
(c) Concentration of power among the privileged: People belonging to the first and second estate had all the power and money. Masses were at the mercy of this privileged class.
(d) Subsistence Crisis: Rising population and less grain production resulted in demand supply gap of bread, which was the staple diet. Wages did not keep pace with rising prices. It was becoming difficult for people.
(e) Growing Middle Class: Because of increased overseas trade a new class emerged. This class was wealthy not because of birth but because of its ability to utilize opportunities. People of the middle class started raising their voice for an end to privileges based on lineage.
All of this led to a general sense of resentment among people. Certain thinkers of the period spread awareness through various media. Some from the privileged classes also advocated a switch to democracy. So, finally there was revolution in France.
Q2. Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution?
Answer: Peasants and artisans of French society benefited from the revolution. Clergy, nobles and church had to relinquish power. It is obvious that those who had to forego power and privileges would have been disappointed. People from the first and the second estate must have been a disappointed lot.
Q3. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution.
Answer: The following fundamental rights, given in the Indian constitution can be traced to the French Revolution:
• The right to equality
• The right to freedom of speech and expression
• The right to freedom from exploitation
• The right to constitutional remedies
Q4. Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions? Explain.
Answer: The message of universal rights was beset with contradictions. Many ideals in the “Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen” were replete with dubious meanings. For example, “the law has the right to forbid only actions injurious to society” had nothing to say about criminal offences against other individuals. Also, the declaration stated that “law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation…All citizens are equal before it”, but when France became a constitutional monarchy, almost 3 million citizens including men under the age of 25 and women were not allowed to vote at all. This was in striking contrast to the ideals that the revolution espoused. When the Jacobins came to power, they were welcomed, but their policies were too harsh and this gave way yet again to the rise of the wealthier middle classes. The political instability of these regimes finally led to the rise of Napoleon. However, throughout these coups, ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity remained paramount in the French political movement.
Q5. How would you explain the rise of Napoleon?
Answer: The rise of Napoleon came right after the fall of the Directory in 1796. The Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then made attempts to dismiss them. The Directory was highly politically unstable; hence, Napoleon rose to power as a military dictator. Earlier, the Jacobins had overthrown King Louis XVI and established governance on their own module; but Robespierre’s administration was too harsh and relentless. Napoleon crowned himself the Emperor in 1804 and abolished dynasties. He viewed himself as a “moderniser of Europe” and was rightly seen as a liberator who introduced a uniform system of weights and measures, introduced laws to protect private property, etc. However, his quest for power led to his ultimate downfall with his defeat at Waterloo in 1815.
Q6. What made France a Constitutional Monarchy?
France became a constitutional monarchy as a result of the French Revolution. The new constitution came into effect in 1791 but before long the struggle between radicals and moderates tore the government apart. The King was deposed in 1792 and executed. France then became a republic.
The First Republic was an unstable government that faced internal insurrection and foreign invasion. The Reign of Terror saw the executions of thousands of people and widespread violence. Eventually the Republic was ended by Napoleon Bonaparte, who named himself initially First Consul and, in 1804, Emperor of France.
Although the Empire had a Constitution, in practice Napoleon ruled as a dictator. Once he was deposed in 1815, the Bourbon Kings were restored, with a "compromise" constitution that limited their powers but still recognised them as rulers by Divine Right.
France was then a constitutional monarchy from 1815 to 1848. King Charles X was foricbly overthrown in 1830 when he refused to share power with the legislature; his successor, Louis-Phillipe, promised to rule as a constitutional monarch. Louis-Phillipe maintained the existing monarchist constitution, but like his predecessors continually interfered with government. Eventually the French overthrew him and France became a republic once again in 1848.
This Second Republic was also short-lived because its President, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, the heir of Napoleon I, soon proclaimed himself Emperor in 1851. Unlike Napoleon I, Napoleon III, as he was known, ruled with a legislative assembly. Napoleon III was the last monarch to rule over France. In 1871 he abdicated after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War, and the Third Republic was proclaimed.
Q7. Why did the jacobians change their pattern of dress?
Ans. The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous section of society. They changed their pattern of dress and started wearing long stripped trousers in order to set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of society especially nobles, who wore knee breeches. It was a way of proclaiming the end of the power wielded by the wearers of knee breeches. The Jacobians also wore the red cap that symbolized the liberty.
Q8. France became a republic on 21st September 1792. How did it affect the monarchy?
Ans. France became a constitutional monarchy as a result of the French Revolution. The new constitution came into effect in 1791 but before long the struggle between radicals and moderates tore the government apart. The King was deposed in 1792 and executed. France then became a republic.
The First Republic was an unstable government that faced internal insurrection and foreign invasion. The Reign of Terror saw the executions of thousands of people and widespread violence. Eventually the Republic was ended by Napoleon Bonaparte, who named himself initially First Consul and, in 1804, Emperor of France.
Although the Empire had a Constitution, in practice Napoleon ruled as a dictator. Once he was deposed in 1815, the Bourbon Kings were restored, with a "compromise" constitution that limited their powers but still recognised them as rulers by Divine Right.
France was then a constitutional monarchy from 1815 to 1848. King Charles X was foricbly overthrown in 1830 when he refused to share power with the legislature; his successor, Louis-Phillipe, promised to rule as a constitutional monarch.
Louis-Phillipe maintained the existing monarchist constitution, but like his predecessors continually interfered with government. Eventually the French overthrew him and France became a republic once again in 1848.
This Second Republic was also short-lived because its President, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, the heir of Napoleon I, soon proclaimed himself Emperor in 1851. Unlike Napoleon I, Napoleon III, as he was known, ruled with a legislative assembly. Napoleon III was the last monarch to rule over France. In 1871 he abdicated after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War, and the Third Republic was proclaimed.
Q9. Describe the impact of the French revolution on the people of the world?
The French Revolution bore a rich legacy for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries because it was the first national movement that adopted the ideals of “liberty, equality and fraternity”. These ideas became the basic tenets of democracy for every nation in the 19th and the 20th century. The Revolution espoused the cause of the masses, sought to abolish the idea of divine right, feudal privileges, slavery and censorship, and upheld merit as the basis for social upgradation. These tenets are important even in the contemporary world for their emphasis on equality and a world free from prejudice. Feudal systems and later, colonisation were abolished by re-working the French Revolution ideals of freedom and equality. Indian leaders such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy were deeply influenced by the ideas that the French Revolution propagated against the monarchy and its absolutism.
CHAPTER: 2
SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Q1. In what ways were the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe, before 1917?
Working population of Russia was vastly different from working population of other European countries:
(i) About 85% of the Russians even in the early 20th century were agriculturists. This proportion was much higher than other European countries e.g., in France and in Germany the proportion was between 40% and 50%.
(ii) Unlike Europe, in Russia, industrialisation started late, in the last quarter of the 19th century. Industries were found in small pockets. Craftsmen existed alongside large factories.
(iii) Workers were a divided social group. Divisions were based on skills. Divisions led to workers being denied even basic rights of 8-hour day and minimum wages.
(iv) Workers continued to maintain strong links with the villages they came from. Women made 31% of factory labour.
(v) Like workers, peasants too were divided. These divisions were accentuated due to religious sentiments. The rich peasants were called Kulaks. Unlike European peasants, Russian peasants had no respect for nobles. Many were driven to grab land of nobles. They lived a life of subsistence were rebellious violent, frequently refused to pay rent and even murdered their landlord.
(vi) Unlike peasants in Europe they were natural socialists. They pooled their land periodically and their commune divided it according to the needs of the individual families.
Q2. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?
The Tsar's autocracy collapsed on 1917 due to the interplay of many factors- social, economic and political.
The Russian state under Tsar Nicholas II was completely unsuited to the needs of modern times. The Tsar still believed in the autocratic absolute rights of the king.
The bureaucracy that the Tsar recruited was top heavy, inefficient and inflexible. Members were recruited on the basis of privileges and patronage, not on merit.
The hopes and efforts at gradual changes and democratic constitutional government after the Revolution of 1905 ended in disappointments and failure.
The peasants and workers who formed large section of the population were miserable, deprived and frustrated. The Tsar was totally ignorant, indifferent to their conditions and needs.
The Tsar had built a vast empire and imposed Russian language and culture on diverse nationalities.
The only people who supported the Tsar were the nobility and upper layers of the clergy and bureaucracy. The rest of the population was hostile to the Tsar.
Russia's participation in World War I exposed the economic bankruptcy of the government and increased liabilities on the already impoverished population.
The liberal ideas of the west and growth of socialist ideology led to the formation of many socialist groups. These groups infused the workers and peasants with a revolutionary spirit.
The autocratic rule of the Tsar, decadence of royalty, demoralising effect of defeats in wars, governments indifference to loss of human lives, condition of soldiers, war's effect on peasants and industry ultimately led to discredit of the government and brought about the end of Tsarist autocracy.
Q3. Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution and the other with the main events and effects of the October Revolution. Write a paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders and what was the impact of each on Soviet history.
Ans Main events and effects of the February Revolution, October Revolution (who was involved, leaders, impact on Soviet history)
(a) The February Revolution
In February 1917, acute food shortages were felt in the workers’ quarters; parliamentarians were opposed to the Tsar’s wish to dissolve the Duma. On 22nd February, a factory lockout occurred and many women led the way to the strikes. The strikes continued, with the workers surrounding fashionable quarters and official buildings at the centre of Petrograd — the Nevskii Prospekt. On 25th February, the Duma was dissolved. This resulted in a ransacking of the Police Headquarters on the 27th. The cavalry refused to fire at the protesting crowd, and by evening, the revolting soldiers and the striking workers were united as a “soviet” or “council” called the Petrograd Soviet.
The Tsar abdicated his power on 2nd March, and the Soviet and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government for Russia. The February Revolution had no political party at its forefront. It was led by the people themselves. Petrograd had brought down the monarchy, and thus, gained a significant place in Soviet history.
(b) The October Revolution
This arose out of the conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks. In September, Vladimir Lenin began to bring together Bolshevik supporters for an uprising. On 16 October 1917, he convinced the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party for a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed under Leon Trotskii to organise this capture of power. When the uprising began on 24 October, Prime Minister Kerenskii left the city to bring in the troops to prevent the situation from going out of control. In a swift response, the Military Revolutionary Committee attacked government offices; the ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace, and by nightfall on the 24th, the city was under Bolshevik control. After some serious fighting, the Bolsheviks gained full control of the Moscow-Petrograd area. The actions of the Bolsheviks were unanimously accepted at a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets, in Petrograd.
The October Revolution was primarily led by Lenin and his sub-ordinate Trotskii, and involved the masses who supported these leaders. It marked the beginning of Lenin’s rule over the Soviet, with the Bolsheviks under his guidance.
Q4 What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution?
In November 1917, industry and banks were nationalised; land was declared social property, thereby allowing peasants to seize it from the nobility. In urban areas, houses were partitioned according to family requirements; old aristocratic titles were banned, and new uniforms were designed for the army and the officials. In November, the Bolsheviks lost in the elections to the Constituent Assembly, and when in January 1918, the Assembly rejected their measures, Lenin dismissed the Assembly. In March 1918, despite political opposition, Russia signed a peace treaty with Germany at Brest Litovsk. Gradually, Russia became a one-party state where trade-unions were controlled, Bolsheviks’ critics were punished by the secret police, and any form of opposition to the Bolshevik Party was censored.
Q5 Write a few lines to show what you know about:
kulaks
the Duma
women workers between 1900 and 1930
the Liberals
Stalin’s collectivisation programme
Ans (a) Kulaks: It is the Russian term for wealthy peasants who Stalin believed were hoarding grains to gain more profit. They were raided in 1928 and their supplies were confiscated. According to Marxism-Leninism, kulaks were a 'class enemy' of the poorer peasants. Their desire for profit led to food shortages and ultimately, Stalin had to put the collectivisation programme in place to eliminate the kulaks, and establish large, state-controlled farms.
(b) The Duma: Formed on 6 August 1905, under the pressure of the Russian Revolution of 1905, it was initially thought to be an advisory organ. In the October Manifesto, Tsar Nicholas II endowed it with legislative and oversight powers. However, he had the power to dismiss the Duma and announce new elections whenever he wished to do so. The Tsar dissolved the Duma on 25 February 1917, and for doing so, he had to ultimately abdicate his own post on the 2nd of March that same year.
(c) Women workers between 1900 and 1930: They made up 31% of the factory labour force by 1914, but were paid almost half and three-quarters of the wages given to men. However, interestingly, it were the women workers who led the way to strikes during the February Revolution.
(d) The Liberals: They espoused a nation that was tolerant towards all religions; one that would protect individual rights against the government. Although the liberals wanted an elected parliamentary form of governance, they believed that the right to vote must only belong to men, and that too the ones who were property holders.
(e) Stalin’s collectivisation programme: This was implemented in 1929 in order to increase grain produce and avoid hoarding by kulaks. The programme entailed collective farms (kolkhoz) where peasants were made to work together. All land and implements were to be owned by the state. Kolkhoz profit was meant to be shared by all the people working on these farms. However, this collectivisation policy was unpopular and cultivators destroyed their livestock in protest. In spite of collectivisation, production did not increase immediately. The bad harvests of 1930-33 led to horrible famines in which over 4 million people died.
Q6.How did the Russian peasants differ from the French peasants?
Russian peasants were different from other European peasants in many ways. They pooled their land together periodically and their commons divide it according to the needs of individual families.
Russian peasants had no regard for the nobility. This was unlike France where during the French Revolution in Brittany peasants respected nobles and fought for them.
Q7. What is known as bloody Sunday?
Bloody Sunday, also known as Red Sunday, was January 22, 1905. On that day a young Russian Orthodox priest, Georgi Gapon (1870–1906), led what was intended to be a peaceful workers' demonstration in front of the Winter Palace, the residence of the Russian czar (emperor) Nicholas II (1868–1918), at St. Petersburg the Russian capital. Gapon wanted to present a petition on behalf of unhappy workers. He expected the Cossack guards and troops to be sympathetic to the workers' request for better conditions. Unexpectedly, the Cossacks refused to let the crowd enter the public grounds of the Palace Square. When a protest broke out, the Cossacks shot into the crowd of demonstrators, killing about 100 people, including women and children.
Gapon was injured and later fled into exile. The bloodshed was so heavy that the snow-covered streets of St. Petersburg were stained red. The incident sent shockwaves through Russia, increasing hostilities against Nicholas and stirring up unrest in Moscow. In the countryside the peasants rose up against their landlords, seizing land, crops, and livestock.
The events triggered by Bloody Sunday foreshadowed the downfall of Russia's czars. Although the demonstration in 1905 was unsuccessful in bringing about change and Nicholas stayed in power for twelve more years, he was the last czar to rule Russia.
Q8. What led to the division of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks?
Both were originally factions of the Russian Social and Democratic Labour Party - a Marxist, communist party. They split with the rest of the party over minor procedural differences, and the division crystallised into a a permanent split in 1912.
The original split was caused by Lenin's insistence that the members of the editorial board of the party newspaper, Iskra, should be party members, Julius Martov disagreed, he insisted that they need only to be "directed" by the party. It was this vote, which Martov lost, that led to Lenin proclaiming that his faction was the Bolsheviks and Martov's the Mensheviks: Bolshevik means majority, Menshevik means minority.
The split solidified as the Bolsheviks continued to accept party funding from bank robberies and extortion: the Mensheviks complained that this was against party rules.
But the biggest split came later, and was concerned with Marxist orthodoxy. The Mensheviks agreed with Marx's view that the proletariat revolution could ONLY occur when a country had achieved a mature capitalist economy. Lenin disagreed, and argued that Marx's historic stages of economic development could be "telescoped". This would allow the Bolsheviks to actively campaign for a workers' revolution, whilst the Mensheviks would campaign for Russia to become capitalism, and then, when Russia was fully industrialised, and the majority of the population was urban, not rural, and were workers, they would campaign for a workers' revolution.
Q9. Describe the social, economic and political conditions of Russia before Revolution?
The social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905 were variously beneficial and bad for the masses. 85% of Russia’s population was agriculturist, far more than France or Germany with 40-50%. Industry was existent, but sporadically. Most of this was privately owned. Workers either came from villages, or migrated to cities for employment in factories. The industrial sector had its fair share of trouble with strikes in the textiles industry in 1896-97 and the metals industry in 1902.
At this time, the peasant community was deeply religious, but did not care much about the nobility. They believed that land must be divided amongst themselves. Since this was not possible due to feudal rights, the peasants had their own unique commune wherein wealth was shared out according to each family’s needs.
Political parties were illegal before 1914. The Social Democratic Workers’ Party (1898) was hence, illegal. Interestingly, the socialists believed that the peasants were “natural socialists” in their policy of equitable distribution of wealth. However, the Bolsheviks under Lenin wanted a disciplined group, and not farmers, in the party. While the Bolsheviks believed in controlling the number and quality of its members, the Mensheviks believed that the party should be open to all.
In the field of economic conditions, 1904 was a bad year for the workers. Due to rise in prices of essential goods, real wages decreased by 20%, leading to the famous St.Petersburg strike where 110,000 workers protested, demanding reduction in work hours and increase in wages. This strike started a series of events that are together known as the 1905 Revolution. During this revolution, there were strikes all over the country, universities closed down, and various professionals and workers established the Union of Unions, demanding the establishment of a constituent assembly.
These were the socio-economic and political conditions in pre-1905 Russia.
Q10. What was the impact of the Russian Revolution over the globe?
The impact of Russian Revolution over the globe was as under :
• spread of communism in the whole world
• formation of third international
• increasing global tensions
• blow to imperialism,boost to freedom movements
• division of world into two-communist n capitalist
• eventual formation of the Soviet Union
Q11. Give an account of the changes introduced after 1917 Revolution in Russia?
Ans.In 1917, two revolutions completely changed the fabric of Russia. First, the February Russian Revolution toppled the Russian monarchy and established a Provisional Government. Then in October, a second Russian Revolution placed the Bolsheviks as the leaders of Russia, resulting in the creation of the world's first communist country.
The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industries and banks were nationalized in November 1917. Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. To assert the change, new uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
CHAPTER: 3
NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER
Q1. Describe the problems faced by the Weimer Republic.
The problems faced by the Weimar Republic were present from its very inception. The Versailles Peace Treaty at the end of the First World War dispossessed Germany of its territories, its resources and its pride as a nation. In spite of the harsh terms, the Weimar Republic accepted the humiliating treaty, thereby making it unpopular amongst the German masses.
The German state was financially crippled due to overwhelming war debts which had to be paid in gold. The French occupied Germany’s chief industrial area—the Ruhr—to exact debts when the Weimar government refused to pay. The uninhibited printing of paper money caused the value of the German mark to fall considerably, thereby causing hyperinflation. When the Great Economic Depression occurred, the German economy was the worst hit because USA—which had been bailing it out of debts—discontinued its monetary support.
Democracy was a new idea in Europe, and the Weimar Republic came about to be one with huge problems during its infancy. The Weimar Republic was weak due to inherent constitutional irregularities such as proportional representation and Article 48 (which gave the President the power to impose emergency and rule by decree). The democratic parliamentary system seemed to give the people no solutions or benefits in the times of the severe economic crisis. Thus, beset with political and economic problems, the German people lost confidence in the Weimar Republic.
Q2. Discuss why Nazism became popular in Germany in 1930.
Nazism became popular in Germany by 1930 on account of various reasons. The most apparent being the Great Depression. The Weimar Republic did little to remedy the country’s economic downfall, and Hitler was presented as a saviour to the humiliated German people living in economic and political crises. Nazi propaganda stirred hopes in times when banks were shut down, unemployment reigned and destitution was a common sight. At such a time, Hitler promised jobs, restoration of national dignity and a better future. Consequently, by 1932, the Nazi Party became the largest party with 37% votes in the Reichstag.
Q3. What were the peculiar features of Nazi thinking?
The peculiar features of Nazi thinking are a belief in racial hierarchy and Lebensraum or living space. Hitler and his followers believed that Nordic German Aryans were at the top, while the jews formed the lowest rung of the racial ladder. They believed that only the strongest race would survive and rule, and for them, this race was that of the Aryans.
Regarding living space, the Nazis were of the idea that new lands must be gained for settlement, and for enhancing the material resources and power of Germany. Nazi views were largely a mouthpiece of Hitler’s own ideology.
Q4. Explain why Nazi propaganda was effective in creating a hatred for Jews.
Nazi propaganda was effective in creating hatred for the jews because of two main reasons. Firstly, the Jews were stereotyped as killers of Christ. They had been barred since medieval times from ownership of land. Secondly, they were hated as usurers or money-lenders. Violence against jews, even inside their residential ghettos, was common. Hitler’s pseudo-scientific race theories made this hatred complete. His “solution” was the total elimination of all jews.
Q5. Explain the role women had played in creating Nazi society. Return to chapter 1 on French revolution. Write a paragraph comparing and contrasting the role of women in the two periods.
Role of women in Nazi society followed the rules of a largely patriarchal or male-dominated society. Hitler hailed women as “the most important citizen” in his Germany, but this was true for only Aryan women who bred pure-blood, "desirable" Aryans. Motherhood was the only goal they were taught to reach for, apart from performing the stereotypical functions of managing the household and being good wives. This was in stark contrast to the role of women in the French Revolution where women led movements and fought for rights to education and equal wages. They were allowed to form political clubs, and schooling was made compulsory for them after the French Revolution.
Q6. In what ways did the Nazi state seek to establish total control over people?
The Nazi state sought to establish total control over its people by dubious methods of propaganda. Mass killings were termed special treatment, final solution; evacuation to disinfection areas was in reality deportation of jews to the gas chambers. The regime used language and media with careful double-meaning expertise, employing the latter for national support and international popularity. Nazi ideology was spread using images, films, radio, posters, and slogans and pamphlets. Enemies of the state were typically presented as weak and degenerate (socialists and liberals), rodents and pests (the Jews). Also, by presenting themselves as liberators and problem-solvers, the Nazis sought to win public support.
Q7. How did the Nazis persecute the Jews?
They encouraged the boycotting and destruction of Jewish-owned businesses. They passed laws prohibiting Jews from engaging in large areas of German professional life. They forced Jews into ghettos and concentration camps, where many died of disease or direct extermination.
They persecuted Jews in every way they possibly could. What started out as harrassment turned into vicious treatment by the media and became an all-out hate campaign. Unfair laws were then passed, making it increasingly difficult, and later impossible for Jewish people to live normal lives or even earn a living. Then began the forced deportations to ghettos, and later, death camps in the East. In between all of this was untold murder, imprisonment, torture, theft and destruction of property.
Q8. What did the Nazis envisage for the youth?
The two major principles the Nazi constantly preached at the Hitler Youth Boys, was the superiority of the German nation andAryan race and the need of the German people for Lebensraum ("living space") in the east. There were other principles such as the recovery of territory lost in World War I and of Germany's overseas colonies. Physical, rather than mental development was stressed and outdoor activities of indirect or direct value to the military. Marching, camping, games, and other activities were also given importance.
Q9. Discuss, the impact of economic crises on Germany?
Ans. The German economy was the worst hit by the economic crises. Industrial production was reduced to 40 per cent. Workers lost their jobs or were paid reduced wages. The number of unemployed touched an unprecedented 6 million. Due to unemployment, the youth took to criminal activities. The economic crises created deep anxieties and fears in people. The middle classes, saw their savings diminish when the currency lost its value. Small businessmen, the self employed and retailers suffered as their business got ruined.
Q10. State the rise of Hitler to power?
After he fought for Germany in the first world war, he was very depressed about the surrender and moved to Munchen. Because that was were most radicals lived. He became member of the Nazi party and became the leader of them. In 1923 he tried a coup (German: Putsch), which faled and he was jailed for a short time, while he wrote his book in prison.
After he got free he became popular and got in the German parilament (the Reichstag). It was later that he became the 2nd party there and went into coalition with the party of the chancelor Von Hindenburg because there was a big threat from the communist parties.
When the chancelor died Hitler took his position. After that he used the burning of the parlamentary building to declare martial law, and thus came to power.
Q11. How did Nazi government effect the Germany policy?
Ans.
Hitler tried to pull his country out of the economic crises that had fallen on Germany as a result of her defeat in the First world War. Different types of industries were set up to provide work to the workers. Trade was encouraged.
Hitler tried to enhance military power of Germany.
All political parties except that of the Nazi party were banned. Assassination of anti-Nazi leaders were organized on a large scale.
The communist parties were also banned. Trade Unions were suppressed. Thousands of socialists and communists were sent to the concentration camps.
A massive programme of militarism was launched and preparation for wars began in a big way.
Chapter:4
HISTORY OF JAMMU & KASHMIR
Q1. Describe the circumstances that led J&K state to come into being?
Ans. The foundation of Jammu & Kashmir was laid by the” Treaty of Amritsar” on 16th of march 1846. The treaty was signed between the British & Gulab Singh at Amritsar. By the treaty of Amritsar, notoriously referred to in J&K as the “Sale deed of Kashmir”. The company made over to Gulab Singh the state of J&K forever as an independent possession. Gulab Singh had to pay to the British 75 lakh Rupees. Millions of people were sold like sheep and cattle and the whole transaction was made behind their backs without any mention of their rights or interests.
Q2. Comment on the reorganization and reformation of the administration during the period (1846-1947)?
Ans. Reorganization and Reformation of the administration was carried out during the period from 1846 to 1947 by various Dogra rulers. This was largely due to influence and interference of the British government.
Gulab Singh who ruled J&K from 1846 to 1857 carried the things as these were under the Sikh rulers. Ranbir Singh (1857 -1885) setup three departments the Revenue, the Civil and the Military with clearly defined spheres of work. The Judicial system was reorganized and Ranbir Penal Code was introduced. Pratap Singh ruled J&K from 1885 to 1925, Several progressive reforms were carried out under Pratap Singh. Hari singh (1925-1947) adopted a policy of moderation and proved to be more accommodative than other Dogra rulers. He issued a number of orders to bring about social equality in the society. He undertook certain measures to introduce democratic setup in administration. Hari Singh went into voluntary exile in june 1947 and passed away at Bombay on 26 April 1961.
Q3. What were the developments in the field of communication under the Dogra rulers?
Ans. Jhelum Valley Cart Road from Kolcala to Baramulla was completed under Dogra rule in 1890 which was later on extended to Srinagar 1897. Gilgit road from Bandipora to Gilgit was also commenced. The construction of JVC road was a major leap in the development of means of communication. It was the first road that connected the valley with the outer world. The first railway link between Jammu and Sialkote started in 1890. In 1922 another highway the banihal cart road was thrown open to t he public traffic which connectd Srinagar with jammu. Telegraphic lines were also laid and extended during the dogra rule.
Q4. Sketch out the progress in the sphere of education and medicare facilities?
Ans. The advent of Christian missionaries is important in the history of education & medicare facilities in Kashmir. Rev. Robert Clark opened the first dispensary in Srinagar on 2nd may 1864. However he left by the end of the year. It was on 8,May 1865 that Dr. Elmsile opened his dispensary in Srinagar. Later Mission Hospital known as drugjan Hospital was built at Rustum Garhi. Another hospital, exclusively for women, was established at Rainawari by the church of England. The devotion & skill of the medical missionaries brought about a great change in the outlook of the people.
The founder of modern schools in Srinagar was Rev. J.H. Knowles. He laid foundation of Christian Missionary Society in 1880. The first open school was started in the hospital premises in Srinagar. The school faced problems due to lack of accommodation & hostile attitude of the state authorities. In 1880 there were only 5 students enrolled in the school. It was in 1883 that a building was obtained at Sheikh bagh in Srinagar. In 1890 the school was shifted to a large house at Fateh Kadal. As a result of this, the number of students increased to 200 in 1890. Miss Helen Burges was the first lady to establish kindergarten system in Srinagar.
The success of missionaries in both medical and educational fields encouraged them to take the women’s education in Kashmir. In 1893 a girl’s school was opened in Fateh Kadal by the missionary ladies. The opening of the girl’s school shocked the people of Srinagar. However with the passage of time the roll increased in the school. Despite the efforts of Christian Missionaries the state remained backward in education.
Q5. Describe the revenue structure and reforms during the period?
Ans. During the Dogra period agriculturists were the main contributors to the state revenue. Agriculturists consisted of about 80% of the total population. Land belonged to the ruler. The peasants had to pay one half share of produce to the state. In addition they had to pay other taxes called rasum. The revenue was paid partly in cash and partly in kind. Not only was the land produce subjected to taxation but nearly everything except air & water was brought under taxation. There was tax on the sale of wood, marriage tax was known as Zari-i-Nikahi, taxation on Circumcision, Notch girls and prostitution was also common.
However the state appointed Sir Walter Lawrence in 1889 for land settlement which greatly reformed the revenue system. The land revenue was reduced to one-third and the peasants were granted occupancy rights.
Shawl trade was important profession other than the agriculture. The shawl trade contributed fairly to the royal treasury and the department which had its taxational monopoly over the shawl trade was called the Dhagi Shawl. Over taxation ruined the shawl trade.
CHAPTER: 5
FOREST SOCIETY AND COLONALISM
Q.1: Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people:
(a) Shifting cultivators
(b) Nomadic and pastoral communities
(c) Firms trading in timber / forest produce
(d) Plantation owners
(e) Kings / British officials engaged in Shikar
Answer:
(a) One of the major impacts of the forest managements during the colonial period was on the lives of shifting cultivators. For centuries these cultivators practiced ‘slash and burn agriculture’ or ‘swidden agriculture’. European foresters regarded this practice harmful for the forests. Therefore, the British Government decided ban the shifting cultivation and reserved these forests for themselves.
As a result many communities were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. Their centuries old profession of shifting agriculture was stopped once for all. Some had to change occupations while some resisted through large and small rebellions against government.
(b) The reservation of forest areas by the British Government also sealed the fate of many nomadic and pastoral communities like the Korava, Karacha and Yerukula of the Madras Presidency lost their means of livelihood. Earlier these people and their cattle depended totally on the forest from which they were deprived because of the new forest management. Some of these communities began to be called ‘criminal tribes’ and were forced to work in factories, mines, and plantations under government supervision.
Thus, these people were forced to operate within new systems and reorganize their lives.
(c) The reservation policy of the British ruined the prospects of several firms trading in timber and forest produce. They could no longer cut trees and collect timber because that was now badly needed by the British to build their ship and railway sleepers. Neither could they now get other forest products like ivory, herbs, silk, coconuts, bamboo, spices, fibers, gums, resins etc. to trade with. Their trading career which was based on forest produce was sealed for ever. The British Government gave European trading firms sole right to trade in the forest products of certain areas.
(d) Plantation owners, who were mainly Europeans, stood to gain by the changes brought in the forest management. Large areas of natural forests were cleared by the plantation owners to establish huge plantations of tea, coffee and rubber to meet Europe’s growing need of these communities. Vast areas of forest land were given to the European planters at quite cheap rates. They were allowed to enclose such areas, clear the forest and plant tea, coffee, and rubber as they liked. Not only this, the Indian plantation owners to take work from them as they hiked.
(e) While the forest dwellers were deprived of their right to hunt deer, partridges and a variety of small animals, the Indian Kings and British officials were allowed to hunt freely in the reserved forests. Under the colonial rule, the hunting increased to such an extent that various species became extinct. A large number of tigers, leopards, wolves were killed as sporting trophy. Hunting or shikar became a sport. Later the environmentalists and conservators realized many species of animals needed to be protected and not killed.
Q.2: What are the similarities between colonial managements of the forests in Bastar and in Java?
Answer: Colonial management in Bastar and Java was quite similar to each other, because in bothe these countries, the colonial rulers exploited the local resources to feed their urban population and to get raw materials for their different industries.
In Bastar, the British Government stopped shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce. Like the British, the Dutch in Java enacted many laws which restricted villagers access to forests, they were punished for grazing cattle in the forest, traveling on forest roads with horse carts and cattle etc. without permit. So, both in Bastar and Java the forest came to be owned by the State and several restrictions were placed on the villagers access to forests and its produces.
Also in both the cases the villagers revolted against these oppressive laws. In Bastar people organized themselves and revolted against the British in 1910. While in Java around 1890 Saminists questioned to the State ownership of the forest land and also protested against the Dutch in various ways.
Q.3: Between 1880 and 1920, forest cover in Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares, from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:
=> Railways
=> Shipbuilding
=> Agricultural expansion
=> Commercial farming
=> Tea/Coffee plantations
=> Adivasis and other peasant users
Answer:
(a) Railways: Railways played a vital role in the decline of the forest cover in India. Wood was used as fuel to run locomotives and sleepers were required to hold tracks together. According to an estimate, around 1760 to 2000 sleepers were required to lay down only one mile railway track. As early as 1850s, in Madras Presidency alone, 35000 trees were being cut annually for sleepers. As a result of laying railway tracks, forests around railway tracks started disappearing rapidly.
(b) Shipbuilding: By the end of 19th century, oak forests in England had almost disappeared. This created a shortage of timber for the Royal Navy. If the imperial power was to be protected and maintained, the building of ships was the first priority. So, search parties were sent to explore the forest resourcesof India. A large number of sleepers began to be exported to England annually. This further led to the indiscriminate cutting of trees year after year which caused deforestation on a massive scale.
(c) Agricultural expansion: During British rule in India cultivation expanded rapidly. The population of India was increasing at a rapid speed every year. As such food requirement was also growing fast which could be met only by expanding cultivation.
Moreover, in 19th century in Europe, food grains were needed to feed the growing urban population and raw materials for industrial purposes. Because of all these reasons, the cultivators continued to expand the boundaries of their cultivated fields which resulted in the depletion of the forest areas.
(d) Commercial farming: The British encouraged the production of commercial crops like, jute, sugar, wheat, cotton, tea, coffee etc. These crops were required by Europe to feed its growing urban population as well as to increase its industrial production. So, large areas of natural forests were cleared to increase commercial farming during this period.
(e) Tea/Coffee plantations: The British encouraged the production of commercial crops like, jute, sugar, wheat, cotton, tea, coffee etc. The allotment of vast forest areas to European plantation owners further led to the reduction of forest areas. These planters not only enclosed such areas but also cleared the forest areas and planted tea, coffee and rubber as they liked. The construction of large number of housing units for the plantation workers further reduced the forest areas.
(f) Adivasis and other peasant users: In spite of different forest laws, the Adivasis and other peasant users, whenever they found any opportunity, continued cutting trees for cooking their food, making their houses etc. Their livelihood mainly came from forest produce. In spite of forest protection acts, they sometimes, revolted against forest laws. In this way these people were also responsible to some extent for the continuous decline in forest.
Q.4: Why are forests affected by wars?
Answer: Forests are affected by wars due to various reasons such as –
1. The defending armies hid themselves and their war materials under the cover of forests to avoid detection. As such enemy forces also target forest areas as a general practice.
2. To meet war needs, sometimes forests are cut indiscriminately.
3. Fearing the capture of forest areas by the enemy, sometimes, the existing governments themselves cut down the trees recklessly. Such incident happened in Indonesia when the Dutch government felt that area under their control would fall to the Japanese.
4. Sometimes, the occupying forces recklessly cut down for their own war industries as was done by the Japanese during the occupation of Indonesia in the Second World War.
Q5. How did industrialization effect forests?
Ans. Industrialisation is the main cause of decline in forest cover .vast areas are cleared to meet the rising need of commercial crops also they are the sole producers of timber to these industries.
Q6. State the reason for extension in cultivation?
Ans.
Q7. Explain the uses of forests for people and government in 19th and 20th centuries?
Ans.
Q8. What was the reaction of the tribal people to the British forest policy?
Ans.
CHAPTER: 6
PASTORALISTS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Q.1: Explain why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another. What are advantages to the environment of their continuous movement ?
Ans. Nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another to adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pastures in different places. This pattern of cyclical movement between summer and winter pastures is typical of many pastoral communities of the Himalayas, including the Bhotias, Sherpas and Kinnauris. When the pastures were exhausted or unusable in one place they move with their flock to new areas. This continuous movement also allowed the pastures to recover, it prevented their overuse.
Q.2. Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists :
Ans. (i) Wasteland Rules - Wasteland Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these rules uncultivated land was taken over and given to select individuals. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation inevitably meant decline of pastures and a problem for pastoralists.
(ii) Forests Acts - Forests Acts were enacted to protect and preserve forests for timber which was of commercial importance. These acts changed the life of pastoralists. They were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. They were issued permits which monitored their entry and exit into forests. They could not stay in the forests as much as they liked because the permit specified the number of days and hours they could spend in the forests. The permit ruled their lives.
(iii) Criminal Tribes Act — The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled population. They wanted the rural population to live a settled life in villages. People who moved from place to place were looked upon with suspicion and regarded as criminals. The Criminal Tribes Act was passed in 1871 by which many nomadic communities were declared as criminal tribes. They were supposed to be criminal by nature and birth. Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live in notified village settlements.
They were not allowed to move out without permits. The village police kept a continuous watch on them.
(iv) Grazing Tax - Grazing Tax was imposed by the colonial government to expand its revenue income. Pastoralists had to pay a tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. This right was now auctioned out to contractors. They extracted as high a tax as they could, to recover the money they had paid to the state and earn as much profit as they could. Later the government itself started collecting taxes. This created problems for the pastoralists who were harassed by tax collectors. It also became an economic burden on them.
Q.3. Give reasons to explain why the Maasai community lost their grazing lands.
Ans. The Maasais lost their grazing lands due to the following reasons :
(i) In 1885, Maasailand was cut into half with an international boundary between the British Kenya and German Tanganyika. The best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement. The Maasai lost 60% of their pre-colonial lands.
(ii) From the late 18th century, the British colonial government in East Africa also encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasture lands were turned into cultivated fields.
(iii) Large areas of grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves. Very often these reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai herds.
The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small area of land that the Maasai were confined within.
Q4. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of Pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders.
Ans. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Here are two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders —
(i) All uncultivated land was seen as wasteland by colonial powers. It produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. This land was brought under cultivation. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists, so expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and a problem both for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai.
(ii) From the 19th century onwards, the colonial government started imposing restrictions on the pastoral communities. They were issued permits which allowed them to move out with their stock and it was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment. Those found guilty of disobeying the rules were severely punished.
Q5. Give a brief description of the living of the nomadic people.
Ans.
Q6. What were the steps taken by the British government with regard to the Nomads and Pastoralists?
Ans.
CHAPTER: 7
PEASANTS AND FARMERS
Q1. Explain briefly what the open field system meant to rural people in eighteenth-century England. Look at the system from the point of view of:
• A rich farmer
• A labourer
• A peasant woman
Ans (a) A rich farmer:
As the prices of wool increased, rich farmers wanted to increase its production. Therefore, they began to privatise the best parts of the common land and open fields for themselves. This was done to ensure that their sheep would get good fodder. They also began to drive out poorer farmers, disallowing them from using common land for grazing.
(b) A labourer:
For the poor labourers, the common lands were essential for survival. They used to live with landowners, doing a number of odd jobs for them in return for board and lodging and a small pay. However, when the open field system began to disappear, labourers were paid wages and employed only at harvest time. This left them at the mercy of rich landowners and farmers.
(c) A peasant woman:
For peasant women, the open field system was a good way of community living wherein everything was shared between the rich and the poor. They would use the common lands for grazing their cattle, gathering fruits and collecting firewood. However, all these activities were negatively affected because of the disappearance of open fields.
Q2. Explain briefly the factors which led to the enclosures in England.
Ans. The factors that led to the enclosures in England were primarily profit-based. When wool prices rose in the sixteenth century, rich farmers began to enclose the best pastures of common lands for their own cattle. Later, in the mid-eighteenth century, the British Parliament passed 4000 Acts legalising these enclosures which had earlier been an individual, and not state, enterprise. Enclosures came into being to enhance grain production since England’s population was booming. Also, industrialisation and war needs made foodgrain prices soar, making it necessary to take steps to increase its production. They were also important for long-term investments on land and to plan crop rotations for maintaining soil fertility.
Q3. Why were threshing machines opposed by the poor in England?
Ans. Threshing machines were opposed by the poor in England because they decreased the employment opportunities of workmen during harvest-time. Previously, labourers had lived with the landowners, doing odd jobs around the farm. Later, they were hired on wages and only during harvest-time. However, with the coming of the threshing machine, most of these labourers were left unemployed and without a means of livelihood. Hence, they opposed this industrial tool.
Q4. Who was Captain Swing? What did the name symbolise or represent?
Ans. Captain Swing was the name appended to some of the threatening letters during the rural English protests against the use of threshing machines and landowners' reluctance to employ labourers. The movement had an imaginary leader with a multiple-use name. His name was chosen, in a form of morbid humour, to echo the prisons that the rebels who got involved in this uprising would have to face.
Q5. What was the impact of the westward expansion of settlers in the USA?
Ans. The westward expansion of settlers in the USA led to a complete annihilation of American Indians who were pushed westwards, down the Mississippi river, and then further west beyond that. They fought back, but were defeated; their villages were burnt and cattle destroyed. Also, with the cultivation of land for agricultural purposes, all grass and trees were razed. This led to terrible dust storms and blizzards in the 1930s, causing much death and destruction.
Q6. What were the advantages and disadvantages of the use of mechanical harvesting machines in the USA?
The mechanical harvesting machines were helpful for clearing large tracts of land, breaking up soil, removing grass and preparing the ground for cultivation in a short span of time and with less human labour. However, for the poor, the machines were a bane. Mechanisation reduced labour demand and many were rendered unemployed. Also, the dust storms of the 1930s could in a way be traced back to the zealous large-scale ploughing of land with the help of these advanced machines. These storms were a result of the presence of vast tracts of ploughed land, with no grass to hold back mud.
Q7. What lessons can we draw from the conversion of the countryside in the USA from a bread basket to a dust bowl?
Ans. There are many useful ecological lessons that we can draw from the conversion of the countryside in the USA from a bread basket to a dust bowl. It teaches us the value of environment protection and safe use of natural resources. It serves as a warning sign against the exploitative use of land for commercial purposes only. There should be a governmental check on how much land is cultivated. The droughts and the dust storms that struck in the 1930s rendered production futile as wheat and corn were rapidly turned into animal fodder due to over-production. It also ruined the landscape.
Q8. Write a paragraph on why the British insisted on farmers growing opium in India.
Ans. The British insisted on farmers growing opium in India because of a trade deal with China. Tea became extremely popular in England, and by 1830, over 30 million pounds of tea was being imported from China. The rulers of China, the Manchus were unfriendly towards foreign merchants and their goods. Hence, there was nothing that England could offer to the Chinese in exchange for tea, except money. Doing so was a loss to the British treasury. Opium was used in Chinese medicine, but was banned for use due to its addictive qualities. The British started an illegal opium trade, and by 1839, there were an estimated 12 million opium smokers in China. All the supplied opium came from India and it formed an easy, cheap way to pay for the tea imported from China.
Q9. Why were Indian farmers reluctant to grow opium?
Ans. Indian farmers were reluctant to grow opium because it required extremely fertile soil and was a difficult crop to grow, requiring more care. It took up the fields that could be utilised for growing pulses, and the time taken in opium production meant that the farmers could pay little or no attention to the other crops. Added to this problem was the problem of low sale price of opium. It was thus unprofitable to be grown.
Q10. What was the attitude of the British to the opium cultivation outside the British territories?
Ans.
Q11. How was opium trade conducted in China?
Ans.
Q12. Has there been a change in the west regarding opium production. If yes, what is it (comprehension)?
Ans.
CHAPTER: 8
HISTORY AND SPORT: THE STORY OF CRICKET
Q.1. Test cricket is a unique game in many ways. Discuss some of the ways in which it is different from other team games. How are the peculiarities of Test cricket shaped by its historical beginnings as a village game?
Ans. The two peculiarities of Test cricket are :
(i) That a match can go on for five days and still end in a draw. No other modern day team sport takes even half as much time to complete. Baseball completes nine innings in less than half the time that it takes to play a limited overs match.
(ii) That the length of the pitch is specified — 22 yards — but the size or shape of the ground is not. No dimensions of the playing area are mentioned for cricket.
The reason behind these oddities is that cricket was the earliest modern team sport to be codified. Cricket was a game before hockey and soccer and hence gave itself rules and regulations so that it could be played in a uniform and standardised manner.
Originally cricket matches had no time limits. This was because the rhythms of village life was slower and cricket rules were made before the Industrial Revolution. Modern factory labour was paid by hours and hence games had to be codified and time limited to fit the routines of industrial city life. When cricket originated, there were no such limits or restrictions.
Cricket was originally played on public property known as commons. The size of this land varied from one village to another, so there were no designated boundaries or boundary hits.
This brought about the second oddity of cricket. If you look at the game’s equipment, you can see how cricket both changed with changing times and yet fundamentally remained true to its origins in rural England. Cricket’s most important tools are all made of natural, pre-industrial materials. The bat is made of wood as
are the stumps and the bails. The ball is made of leather, twine and cork. Even today both bat and ball are hand-made, not industrially manufactured. The material of the bat changed slightly over time. Once it was cut of a single piece of wood. Now it consists of two pieces, the blade which is made out of the wood of the willow tree and the handle which is made out of cane that became available as European colonialists and trading companies established themselves in Asia. Unlike golf and tennis, cricket has refused to remake its tools with industrial or man-made materials: plastic, fibre glass and metal have been firmly rejected.
Q.2. Describe one way in which in the nineteenth century, technology brought about a change in equipment and give one example where no change in equipment took place.
Ans. As far as protective equipment in cricket is concerned, it has been influenced by technological change. The invention of the vulcanised rubber led to the introduction of pads in 1848 and protective gloves soon afterwards. Today’s cricket cannot be imagined without helmets made of metal and synthetic lightweight materials.
However, cricket’s most important tools are all made of natural, pre-industrial material. The ball, for example, is still hand-made. It is made of leather, twine and cork. These balls are not industrially manufactured.
Q.3. Explain why cricket became popular in India and the West Indies.
Ans. Cricket was a colonial game limited to countries that had once been part of the British empire. It took root only in countries that the British conquered and ruled. The British imperial officers brought the game to the colonies where it was played either by them or by the local elites who wanted to copy the habits of their colonial masters as in India.
Despite the exclusiveness of the game it became popular in India and West Indies. Success in cricket became a measure of racial equality and political progress.
Q.4. Give brief explanations for the following :
(i) The Parsis were the first Indian community to set up a cricket club in India.
(ii) Mahatma Gandhi condemned the Pentangular tournament.
(iii) The name of the ICC was changed from the Imperial Cricket Conference to the International Cricket Conference.
(iv) The significance of the shift of the ICC headquarters from London to Dubai.
Ans.
(i) The Parsis were the first Indian community to set up a cricket club in India, the Oriental Cricket Club in Bombay. This was as a consequence of the Parsi contact with the British. The Parsis were brought into close contact with the British because of their interest in trade and were the first Indian community to westernise.
(ii) Mahatma Gandhi condemned the Pentangular tournament as he felt that it was a divisive competition that went against the need of the hour. At a time when the nationalists were trying to unite India’s diverse population, the Pentangular tournament divided them on communal lines and the colonial government encouraged these divisions.
(iii) The name was changed because of decolonisation. This was a process by which the British influence in many areas, one of them sports, declined. Cricket was no longer the monopoly of the imperial powers. Cricket was becoming international. In time, it came to be accepted that the laws of cricket could not continue to be framed for British or Australian conditions of play and they became part of the technique of all bowlers, everywhere in the world.
(iii) The break-up of the British empire brought about a shift in the balance of power in cricket. This shift was taken to its logical conclusion by globalisation. Since India had the largest viewership for cricket as compared to other cricket playing nations the shift was towards South Asia. The transfer of ICC headquarters from London to tax-free Dubai is a clear symbol of this shift.
Q.5. How have advances in technology, especially television technology, affected the development of contemporary cricket?
Ans. Advances in television technology have certainly affected the development of contemporary cricket.
(i) Cricket has become more attractive to television audiences, endured and changed the nature of the game. Cricket now became a marketable game.
(ii) Cricket boards sold television rights to television companies and reaped profits.
(iii) Television channels sold television spots to companies. They aired their commercials and advertised their commodities to a large number of audience. They made huge profits.
(iv) Continuous television coverage made cricketers celebrities.
(v) Cricketers became rich. They were paid by cricket boards and also by companies whose commercials they endorsed.
(vi) Cricket audience expanded. Cricket was taken to the smaller towns. Children also became
cricket fans.
(vii) People could watch and learn by imitating their heroes.
(viii) Cricket entered the global market. A match at Melbourne could be watched at Mumbai.
(ix) Balance of power shifted to South Asia as most viewership was from here.
CHAPTER: 9
CLOTHING: A SOCIAL HISTORY
Q.1. Explain the reasons for the changes in clothing patterns and materials in the eighteenth century.
Ans. After the 18th century, the colonisation of most of the world by Europe, the spread of democratic ideals and the growth of an industrial society completely changed the ways in which people thought about dress. People could use styles and materials that were drawn from other cultures and locations. Western dress styles for men were adopted worldwide.
Q.2. What were the sumptuary laws in France?
Ans. From 1294 to the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the people of France were expected
to strictly follow the sumptuary laws. The laws tried to control the behaviour of those considered socially inferior, preventing them from wearing certain clothes, consuming certain foods and beverages, and hunting game in certain areas.
Q.3. Give an example of any two examples of the ways in which European dress codes were different from Indian dress codes.
Ans. European dress codes were different from Indian dress codes. Let us take the example of the turban and the hat. The two headgears not only looked different but also signified different things. The turban in India was not just for protection from the heat but was a sign of respectability and could not be removed at will. In the western tradition, the hat had to be removed before social superiors as a sign of respect.
The shoe is another example. The Indians took off their shoes when they entered a sacred place. The British did not do so.
Q.4. In 1805, a British official, Benjamin Heyne, listed the manufactures of Bangalore which included the following :
(i) Women’s cloth of different musters and names
(ii) Coarse chintz
(iii) Muslins
(iv) Silk cloths.
Of the list, which kind of cloth would have definitely fallen out of use in the early 1800s and why?
Ans. Muslin would have fallen out of use as machine cloth had flooded the Indian markets and was cheaper. Muslin was expensive and hence was not used. In fact, the Industrial Revolution brought about a complete change in which muslin cloth had no place.
Q.5. Winston Churchill described Mahatma Gandhi as a ‘seditious Middle Temple lawyer’ now ‘posing as a half naked fakir.’ What provoked such a comment and what does it tell you about the symbolic strength of Mahatma Gandhi’s dress?
Ans. Mahatma Gandhi went to the Viceroy’s house clad in a dhoti. This signified the symbolic strength of his dress. It showed the pride he had for his nation and its people, especially the peasants. It also signified how he identified with his people and the strength he derived from them.
Q.6. Why did Mahatma Gandhi’s dream of clothing the nation in khadi appeal only to some sections of Indians?
Ans. Mahatma Gandhi’s dream was to clothe the whole nation in khadi. But it was not easy for everyone to follow in his footsteps. Not many could take to a single peasant loincloth as he had. Some could not afford khadi which was expensive and some preferred to be dressed in finer cloth of various colours and designs.
Q.7. How did the second world war bring the changes in clothing?
Ans.
Q.8 Explain why could not Swadeshi movement succeed in popularizing Khadi?
Ans.
Q9. Discuss the reaction of Indians to the introduction of western dress style?
Ans.
Q.10. Explain the reasons why women in 19th century India were continued to wear traditional dress though men adopted the western style. What does this tell us about the position of women in society?
Ans. Women in the 19th century India were obliged to continue wearing traditional Indian dress even when men switched over to more convenient western clothes. This clearly shows that women during that time were accorded a lower status than men in society. They were not allowed to be aware of what was going on outside the house and were confined within the four walls of their homes. Modernity and change were not for them.
